I believe that directing can't be taught, the style and methods comes naturally. However there are certain aspects such as shots, processes, tips and general rules that I would like to understand or refresh my memory on as I haven't directed anything since our behind the scenes for Studio Production and the Fiction Adaptation unit before that.
Having already established my writing and directing styles in previous posts; this post will show the reading I have partaken in learning new methods and ways to shoot a scene.
I made a small A5 folder during the summer that I refer to as my 'bible' that contains information on directing such as tips for working with actors and solutions to certain problems. Other sections include a glossary, lighting, cinematography and sound. New information I learn is added to the folder
I plan to have this folder with me on all future projects, including Grit.
Directing:
1. Film Directing Shot By Shot [Steven Douglas Katz, 1991]
I actually own this book, which I bought several years ago, and only flicked through it back then. Knowing I had a copy I decided to grab it and look through to see if there were any key pieces of information I could take from it and came across some things:
The Master Shot:
"The master shot is the one shot that is wide enough to include all the actors in the scene and runs for the entire length of the action... it is part of a plan of coverage that includes other camera setups in the triangle system that will eventually be edited together." [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 174]
Knowing what a master shot is will help further down the line in explaining my shots easier to crew and when storyboarding.
The 'I', 'A' and 'L' Patterns:
These represent the staging of the actors. Imagine the points of each letter as a position for the actor to stand on. So 'I' would be two characters facing each other; 'A' would be a triangle of three actors and 'L' would be an isosceles triangle of three actors.
Knowledge of these three positions will make positioning easier and storyboarding. As Grit contains scenes where three characters are interacting with each other, this will help with camera positioning
Open and Closed Framings:
"In film, open framings are compositions of the type usually found in documentaries, where many of the elements in the frame are beyond the filmmaker's control. In such stagings, several subjects may be partially cut off by the edge of the frame or partially obscured by foreground elements.
Closed framings are compositions with subjects carefully positioned for maximum clarity and graphic balance" [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 259]
"Open forms seem more realistic, while closed forms seem staged." [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 259]
I find this quite interesting. I could use a mix of open and closed framings to manipulate what the audience perceive as realistic to trick them into thinking that certain scenes in Grit are real in relation to the diegesis. Scenes such as the inconsistencies and ones that Sean perceive as real but aren't. Other times I can use the closed framing for a juxtaposition and confuse the perception of what the audience would define as real. Again when breaks in the continuity happen to disorientate them.
2. Directing Actors [Judith Weston, 1996]
This is exactly what is says on the tin. My biggest concern with filmmaking is directing actors. I've only done this once before during my Fiction Adaptation unit and, as an introvert, struggle to communicate well with other people or just flat out can't express myself.
Of course I need to try and fix this and by reading this book I have learned some helpful tips and methods that I can add to my folder.
Avoid Result Direction:
"Result oriented direction attempts to shape the actor's performance by describing the result you are after i.e., how you want it to end up looking and sounding." [Weston, 1996: 82]
The author gives some examples:
"1) Can you make it more quirky?
Telling an actor what effect you want him to have on the audience is a perfect example of directing by describing a result... From this point the actor-direcotr relationship dissolves into a guessing game, because the direction is so vague." [Weston, 1996: 14]
"5) When she tells you that she doesn't have the money, you get angry.
This is an extension of telling the actor what emotion to have - telling her what reaction to have. Again, the notion that one can decide on, aim for, and deliver a particular reaction simply because one wishes to do so is at variance with our life experience. In real life we may wish we could plan our reactions... but it is the very nature of such occurrences that they take us by surprise, however gracefully or subtly we may manage to deal with them." [Weston, 1996: 18]
"Emotional mapping is almost always a superficial analysis of the script, usually no more than a regurgitation of the plot or dialogue. When actors try to follow an emotional map, the performance degenerates into an emotional connect-the-dots drawing, contrived, predictable. It can't flow because it has no through line.
The through-line is the way that actors believably connect to the character's emotional reality. One of these, key actors use to connect to their character's through-line, is a sense of objective, or simple intention... an objective is what the character wants from the other character, and the intention i what he is doing to get it." [Weston, 1996: 20]
I find these points really interesting as they help in understanding how to speak, or portray a scene, to an actor.
Avoid Using Adjectives:
"Adjectives are static, they describe someone else's impression of the character. The essence of a person is not other people's descriptions of her... in order to create an alive, believable characterisation, the actor needs insight into how the character experiences life, in language that is experiential, not descriptive." [Weston, 1996: 27]
This is surprisingly true: explaining to an actor that you them be friendly just asks the questions 'what is your interpretation of friendly' rather than looking at the character's definition of it. One person's friendly is another person's annoying, or too quiet, or angry. It's all relative and unique to the person experiencing that emotion.
This is definitely something I will look into: how each character's definitions of emotions differ to one another. To do this I will need to create deeper and more detailed character bios that cover just this area alone.
3. Visual Hierarchy
I have already mentioned this video in a previous post (Visual Hierarchy) but I find it so interesting that I had to include it here.
What I like so much about it is that something as simple as placing the camera slightly higher than eye level can subconsciously create moods and power between characters. The example used in Ex Machina [Garland, 2015] states that the character has a reflection. Hinting that she is two-faced and lying to the other character; which is true to the scene.
There is conflict between Sean and Archie in Grit which is the perfect opportunity to utilise this subtle technique.
4. Birdman Behind The Scenes
This two-part series shows how some of the long takes were made and shows some on set discussions between the director, Alejandro Gonzalez Iñárritu, and the crew. I like watching behind the scenes videos because of the glimpses into this world you get to see.
I wouldn't say I've learnt anything director-wise from these but instead making me realise the amount of time and effort that's going to be needed to pull of the longer takes in Grit. I did pick up on the use of a bounce board for the lighting in the exterior shots which I will consider using for my exteriors.
5. Directing Tips Article
This is a collection of tips and advice for directing. Below are the key two that I feel help out with Grit. Link: http://actioncutprint.com/film-directing-tips/#8
"The most important part for a director is knowing the script: structure, characters, space, plot,… You should know the material that you have in your hands. Second thing: You should know what you want to say with this film – if you don’t know what you want to say, you will lose the control over the material, actors, and crew. And the last thing: You should find the ways to say what you want to say. Discipline and organization are important here. Make a list, in detail, with every aspect of the production (Performance, Location, Direction of Photographic, Sound,…) and remember that “there’s no unimportant decisions in filmmaking” [Marshall, 2012]
These tips help me to realise that I need to be tremendously prepared by the time I arrive on set on the first day. By establishing objective and intent my communication with an actor can be improved and makes directing them easier because I would know the characters aims and mindset.
6. The 180 Degree Rule
I've never really cared too much about this rule as I prefer to lean more towards how the scene flows. If sudden movement of the camera is required/desired then I will cross the line to achieve that. I intend to break this rule on purpose during the final confrontation between Sean and Archie to emphasise the world breaking and disorientate the audience.
In scenes such as one-to-one conversations then I follow the rule. The shots are noticeably worse when the rule is broken in scenes like this but as I favour long takes I tend to stage and frame a scene so that it can be completed in as few takes as possible.
Because of this sheer ignorance to the rule I have forgotten it. And in forgotten I mean that I get mixed up about the line.
In 'Film: A Critical Introduction' the purpose for the rule is explained:
"In short, the 180-degree rule helps maintain consistent screen direction and spacial unity." [Pramaggiore, 2005:183]
What I can take from this:
- Some new terminology. This will help when communicating with crew
- Don't be too vague with actors: be specific yet give them enough to explore the character.
- Create more detail for the characters. Specifics like their own unique emotions. This makes directing easier on set as the actors can understand how the character thinks and reacts.
- Speak to the actor, don't just say 'that's good'. Give feedback. This allows them to learn better and gauge how to amend the performance.
- Every character in every scene needs and objective and/or intention. Same goes for the scene in general. Even go as far as establishing their feelings and opinions towards another character(s) in that scene. For example: when Zoe and Sean meet Archie, Zoe wants to know more about him whilst Sean is distrusting and cautious of him. This immediately helps explain how the actors should be behaving and reacting to everything Archie says or does.
- Abide to the 180-degree rule as much as you can.
Writing
1. Reading Scripts
I read three scripts for films similar to Grit in tone or style: Birdman, Heat and Fight Club to see how they varied and described the action we see on screen.
Heat's script is very descriptive of the characters. Even going as far as to describe backstory that isn't visibly clear to us such as Michael Cerrito spending 15 years in Attica, Joliet and Marion. This type of description is great though as it gives you the fact that Cerrito has spend a good amount of his life in jail and therefore is a revered criminal. Adding gravitas to his presence.
The description in Birdman's script is very casual and detailed: very similar to my style.
"And if all this seems a little odd, it becomes all the more so when you notice he is levitating almost two feet above the floor"
One other thing in this script is that the word 'continuous' is used to signal that the shift to the next scene is still in one take. This is something I may add into my script to help out with blocking and shooting for the crew and actors.
2. The First Ten Pages
In the book 'The Definitive Guide To Screenwriting' Syd Field writes:
"This first ten-page unit of dramatic action is the most important part of the screenplay because you have to show the reader who your main character is, what the dramatic premise of the story is, and what the dramatic situation is." [Field, 2008:12]
This is based off of a feature length script (90-120 pages) meaning that for a 30-page script you would probably expect this established within the first 2-3 pages.
3. Bury The Backstory
In 'Save The Cat!: The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need' the term 'Pope in the pool' is used. What this consists of is getting through a potentially lengthy piece of exposition or dialogue by making the audience aware that it's happening or to distract us from it as it's going on.
This example is given:
"In the Austin Powers films Mike Meyers has done us one better by naming a character Basil Exposition, whose sole purpose is to tell the boring backstory to the British super spy... and us. Every time Basil appears we know we're going to get a dose of elucidation, but revel in the fact that they know we know it's boring and have made light of that fact." [Snyder, 2005:125]
This method would be useful in a 30-page-max script as a piece of backstory can be said whilst another piece of action is going on, preventing the scene from becoming too dull.
4. Terminology
During my research I picked up a few new words and aspects of screenwriting.
Deus Ex Machina
This plot device occurs when a character evades or resolves a situation that was insolvable. As defined in 'Novelists Essential Guide to Creating Plot':
"A particular form of contrived resolution... is called the deus ex machina...Anything introduced at the end to resolve the central conflict that does not logically follow from the substance of the plot qualifies." [Davis, 2000:125-126]
This device is to be avoided as much as possible due to it essentially 'cheating' the audience and mocking the whole plot of the film.
Favour On
I found a list of screenwriting terms and included in that was this term. Link: http://www.movieoutline.com/articles/a-glossary-of-screenwriting-terms-and-filmmaking-definitions.html
"A particular character or action is highlighted or "favored" in a shot. The focus is basically centered on someone or something in particular." [Bronzite, 2013]
What I can take from this:
- Avoid Deus Ex Machina. It's cheap and a get-out-of-jail card. Just make sure I don't write myself into a corner AKA into a scenario I get out of or resolve.
- Use the diegesis to mask exposition or long monologues.
- The first few pages are crucial to engaging and captivating the audience. Make it pop.
- There isn't a rule for how much description to put in but for me personally a fair amount will do fine. Make sure it's useful and helps to paint a picture of the characters/locations/actions.
Bibliography:
Bronzite, Dan. (2013) A Glossary Of Screenwriting Terms & Filmmaking Definitions
Davis, J (2000) Novelists Essential Guide to Creating Plot. USA: Writer's Digest Books. At:http://www.movieoutline.com/articles/a-glossary-of-screenwriting-terms-and-filmmaking-definitions.html (Accessed on 25.11.15)
Douglas-Katz, Steven (1991) Film Directing Shot by Shot: Visualizing from Concept to Screen. USA: Michael Wiese Productions.
Field, Syd (2008) The Definitive Guide To Screenwriting. UK: Random House.
Marshall, Peter D. (2012) Film Directing Tips. At: http://actioncutprint.com/film-directing-tips/#8 (Accessed on 23.11.15)
Pramaggiore, Maria. Et al. (2005) Film: A Critical Introduction. London: Laurence King Publishing.
Snyder, Blake (2005) Save The Cat!: The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need. USA: Michael Wiese Productions.
Weston, Judith (1996) Directing Actors. USA: Michael Wiese Productions
Having already established my writing and directing styles in previous posts; this post will show the reading I have partaken in learning new methods and ways to shoot a scene.
I made a small A5 folder during the summer that I refer to as my 'bible' that contains information on directing such as tips for working with actors and solutions to certain problems. Other sections include a glossary, lighting, cinematography and sound. New information I learn is added to the folder
I plan to have this folder with me on all future projects, including Grit.
Directing:
1. Film Directing Shot By Shot [Steven Douglas Katz, 1991]
I actually own this book, which I bought several years ago, and only flicked through it back then. Knowing I had a copy I decided to grab it and look through to see if there were any key pieces of information I could take from it and came across some things:
The Master Shot:
"The master shot is the one shot that is wide enough to include all the actors in the scene and runs for the entire length of the action... it is part of a plan of coverage that includes other camera setups in the triangle system that will eventually be edited together." [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 174]
Knowing what a master shot is will help further down the line in explaining my shots easier to crew and when storyboarding.
The 'I', 'A' and 'L' Patterns:
These represent the staging of the actors. Imagine the points of each letter as a position for the actor to stand on. So 'I' would be two characters facing each other; 'A' would be a triangle of three actors and 'L' would be an isosceles triangle of three actors.
Knowledge of these three positions will make positioning easier and storyboarding. As Grit contains scenes where three characters are interacting with each other, this will help with camera positioning
Open and Closed Framings:
"In film, open framings are compositions of the type usually found in documentaries, where many of the elements in the frame are beyond the filmmaker's control. In such stagings, several subjects may be partially cut off by the edge of the frame or partially obscured by foreground elements.
Closed framings are compositions with subjects carefully positioned for maximum clarity and graphic balance" [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 259]
"Open forms seem more realistic, while closed forms seem staged." [Douglas-Katz, 1991: 259]
I find this quite interesting. I could use a mix of open and closed framings to manipulate what the audience perceive as realistic to trick them into thinking that certain scenes in Grit are real in relation to the diegesis. Scenes such as the inconsistencies and ones that Sean perceive as real but aren't. Other times I can use the closed framing for a juxtaposition and confuse the perception of what the audience would define as real. Again when breaks in the continuity happen to disorientate them.
2. Directing Actors [Judith Weston, 1996]
This is exactly what is says on the tin. My biggest concern with filmmaking is directing actors. I've only done this once before during my Fiction Adaptation unit and, as an introvert, struggle to communicate well with other people or just flat out can't express myself.
Of course I need to try and fix this and by reading this book I have learned some helpful tips and methods that I can add to my folder.
Avoid Result Direction:
"Result oriented direction attempts to shape the actor's performance by describing the result you are after i.e., how you want it to end up looking and sounding." [Weston, 1996: 82]
The author gives some examples:
"1) Can you make it more quirky?
Telling an actor what effect you want him to have on the audience is a perfect example of directing by describing a result... From this point the actor-direcotr relationship dissolves into a guessing game, because the direction is so vague." [Weston, 1996: 14]
"5) When she tells you that she doesn't have the money, you get angry.
This is an extension of telling the actor what emotion to have - telling her what reaction to have. Again, the notion that one can decide on, aim for, and deliver a particular reaction simply because one wishes to do so is at variance with our life experience. In real life we may wish we could plan our reactions... but it is the very nature of such occurrences that they take us by surprise, however gracefully or subtly we may manage to deal with them." [Weston, 1996: 18]
"Emotional mapping is almost always a superficial analysis of the script, usually no more than a regurgitation of the plot or dialogue. When actors try to follow an emotional map, the performance degenerates into an emotional connect-the-dots drawing, contrived, predictable. It can't flow because it has no through line.
The through-line is the way that actors believably connect to the character's emotional reality. One of these, key actors use to connect to their character's through-line, is a sense of objective, or simple intention... an objective is what the character wants from the other character, and the intention i what he is doing to get it." [Weston, 1996: 20]
I find these points really interesting as they help in understanding how to speak, or portray a scene, to an actor.
Avoid Using Adjectives:
"Adjectives are static, they describe someone else's impression of the character. The essence of a person is not other people's descriptions of her... in order to create an alive, believable characterisation, the actor needs insight into how the character experiences life, in language that is experiential, not descriptive." [Weston, 1996: 27]
This is surprisingly true: explaining to an actor that you them be friendly just asks the questions 'what is your interpretation of friendly' rather than looking at the character's definition of it. One person's friendly is another person's annoying, or too quiet, or angry. It's all relative and unique to the person experiencing that emotion.
This is definitely something I will look into: how each character's definitions of emotions differ to one another. To do this I will need to create deeper and more detailed character bios that cover just this area alone.
3. Visual Hierarchy
I have already mentioned this video in a previous post (Visual Hierarchy) but I find it so interesting that I had to include it here.
What I like so much about it is that something as simple as placing the camera slightly higher than eye level can subconsciously create moods and power between characters. The example used in Ex Machina [Garland, 2015] states that the character has a reflection. Hinting that she is two-faced and lying to the other character; which is true to the scene.
There is conflict between Sean and Archie in Grit which is the perfect opportunity to utilise this subtle technique.
4. Birdman Behind The Scenes
This two-part series shows how some of the long takes were made and shows some on set discussions between the director, Alejandro Gonzalez Iñárritu, and the crew. I like watching behind the scenes videos because of the glimpses into this world you get to see.
I wouldn't say I've learnt anything director-wise from these but instead making me realise the amount of time and effort that's going to be needed to pull of the longer takes in Grit. I did pick up on the use of a bounce board for the lighting in the exterior shots which I will consider using for my exteriors.
5. Directing Tips Article
This is a collection of tips and advice for directing. Below are the key two that I feel help out with Grit. Link: http://actioncutprint.com/film-directing-tips/#8
9: Character Objectives
"Actors and Directors have to come up with as many objectives for a character as possible. A character’s objective should be something that will engage the other characters in a scene; it should create it’s own obstacles; and it should be something the actor can believe in and commit to.
But there is one important rule to remember when choosing objectives for a character. An actor can only play ONE objective in a scene! Always ask yourself “What is the character’s need in this scene?” and then make sure the actor plays that objective!" [Marshall, 2012]
10: Advice on Making Short FilmsBut there is one important rule to remember when choosing objectives for a character. An actor can only play ONE objective in a scene! Always ask yourself “What is the character’s need in this scene?” and then make sure the actor plays that objective!" [Marshall, 2012]
"The most important part for a director is knowing the script: structure, characters, space, plot,… You should know the material that you have in your hands. Second thing: You should know what you want to say with this film – if you don’t know what you want to say, you will lose the control over the material, actors, and crew. And the last thing: You should find the ways to say what you want to say. Discipline and organization are important here. Make a list, in detail, with every aspect of the production (Performance, Location, Direction of Photographic, Sound,…) and remember that “there’s no unimportant decisions in filmmaking” [Marshall, 2012]
These tips help me to realise that I need to be tremendously prepared by the time I arrive on set on the first day. By establishing objective and intent my communication with an actor can be improved and makes directing them easier because I would know the characters aims and mindset.
6. The 180 Degree Rule
I've never really cared too much about this rule as I prefer to lean more towards how the scene flows. If sudden movement of the camera is required/desired then I will cross the line to achieve that. I intend to break this rule on purpose during the final confrontation between Sean and Archie to emphasise the world breaking and disorientate the audience.
In scenes such as one-to-one conversations then I follow the rule. The shots are noticeably worse when the rule is broken in scenes like this but as I favour long takes I tend to stage and frame a scene so that it can be completed in as few takes as possible.
Because of this sheer ignorance to the rule I have forgotten it. And in forgotten I mean that I get mixed up about the line.
In 'Film: A Critical Introduction' the purpose for the rule is explained:
"In short, the 180-degree rule helps maintain consistent screen direction and spacial unity." [Pramaggiore, 2005:183]
What I can take from this:
- Some new terminology. This will help when communicating with crew
- Don't be too vague with actors: be specific yet give them enough to explore the character.
- Create more detail for the characters. Specifics like their own unique emotions. This makes directing easier on set as the actors can understand how the character thinks and reacts.
- Speak to the actor, don't just say 'that's good'. Give feedback. This allows them to learn better and gauge how to amend the performance.
- Every character in every scene needs and objective and/or intention. Same goes for the scene in general. Even go as far as establishing their feelings and opinions towards another character(s) in that scene. For example: when Zoe and Sean meet Archie, Zoe wants to know more about him whilst Sean is distrusting and cautious of him. This immediately helps explain how the actors should be behaving and reacting to everything Archie says or does.
- Abide to the 180-degree rule as much as you can.
Writing
1. Reading Scripts
I read three scripts for films similar to Grit in tone or style: Birdman, Heat and Fight Club to see how they varied and described the action we see on screen.
 |
| Heat [Mann, 1995] |
 |
| Heat [Mann, 1995] |
 |
| Fight Club [Fincher, 1999] |
 |
| Fight Club [Fincher, 1999] |
Fight Club's description is very basic: doesn't tell us much about the characters at all which is something to avoid. I was quite surprised to discover that there wasn't much character description in the script at all. The visual descriptions however were useful: things like the IKEA furniture appearing around the room and Jack tonguing the barrel of the gun.
 |
| Birdman [Gonzalez Iñárritu, 2014] |
 |
| Birdman [Gonzalez Iñárritu, 2014] |
 |
| Birdman [Gonzalez Iñárritu, 2014] |
"And if all this seems a little odd, it becomes all the more so when you notice he is levitating almost two feet above the floor"
One other thing in this script is that the word 'continuous' is used to signal that the shift to the next scene is still in one take. This is something I may add into my script to help out with blocking and shooting for the crew and actors.
2. The First Ten Pages
In the book 'The Definitive Guide To Screenwriting' Syd Field writes:
"This first ten-page unit of dramatic action is the most important part of the screenplay because you have to show the reader who your main character is, what the dramatic premise of the story is, and what the dramatic situation is." [Field, 2008:12]
This is based off of a feature length script (90-120 pages) meaning that for a 30-page script you would probably expect this established within the first 2-3 pages.
3. Bury The Backstory
In 'Save The Cat!: The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need' the term 'Pope in the pool' is used. What this consists of is getting through a potentially lengthy piece of exposition or dialogue by making the audience aware that it's happening or to distract us from it as it's going on.
This example is given:
"In the Austin Powers films Mike Meyers has done us one better by naming a character Basil Exposition, whose sole purpose is to tell the boring backstory to the British super spy... and us. Every time Basil appears we know we're going to get a dose of elucidation, but revel in the fact that they know we know it's boring and have made light of that fact." [Snyder, 2005:125]
This method would be useful in a 30-page-max script as a piece of backstory can be said whilst another piece of action is going on, preventing the scene from becoming too dull.
4. Terminology
During my research I picked up a few new words and aspects of screenwriting.
Deus Ex Machina
This plot device occurs when a character evades or resolves a situation that was insolvable. As defined in 'Novelists Essential Guide to Creating Plot':
"A particular form of contrived resolution... is called the deus ex machina...Anything introduced at the end to resolve the central conflict that does not logically follow from the substance of the plot qualifies." [Davis, 2000:125-126]
This device is to be avoided as much as possible due to it essentially 'cheating' the audience and mocking the whole plot of the film.
Favour On
I found a list of screenwriting terms and included in that was this term. Link: http://www.movieoutline.com/articles/a-glossary-of-screenwriting-terms-and-filmmaking-definitions.html
"A particular character or action is highlighted or "favored" in a shot. The focus is basically centered on someone or something in particular." [Bronzite, 2013]
What I can take from this:
- Avoid Deus Ex Machina. It's cheap and a get-out-of-jail card. Just make sure I don't write myself into a corner AKA into a scenario I get out of or resolve.
- Use the diegesis to mask exposition or long monologues.
- The first few pages are crucial to engaging and captivating the audience. Make it pop.
- There isn't a rule for how much description to put in but for me personally a fair amount will do fine. Make sure it's useful and helps to paint a picture of the characters/locations/actions.
Bibliography:
Bronzite, Dan. (2013) A Glossary Of Screenwriting Terms & Filmmaking Definitions
Davis, J (2000) Novelists Essential Guide to Creating Plot. USA: Writer's Digest Books. At:http://www.movieoutline.com/articles/a-glossary-of-screenwriting-terms-and-filmmaking-definitions.html (Accessed on 25.11.15)
Douglas-Katz, Steven (1991) Film Directing Shot by Shot: Visualizing from Concept to Screen. USA: Michael Wiese Productions.
Field, Syd (2008) The Definitive Guide To Screenwriting. UK: Random House.
Marshall, Peter D. (2012) Film Directing Tips. At: http://actioncutprint.com/film-directing-tips/#8 (Accessed on 23.11.15)
Pramaggiore, Maria. Et al. (2005) Film: A Critical Introduction. London: Laurence King Publishing.
Snyder, Blake (2005) Save The Cat!: The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need. USA: Michael Wiese Productions.
Weston, Judith (1996) Directing Actors. USA: Michael Wiese Productions
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